Physiology and Cognitive Science

By Depew, Langston, LeVay and Lewis

Physiological Issues of Cognitive Science

One important source for cognitive science is physiology. It is not the physiology itself that is of interest to the Cognitive Scientist rather it is what physiology can do to explain cognition that is compelling. Physiology is used to explain the mechanisms underlying what is observed. Have you ever said, "What makes you think that?" Cognitive Scientist continually ask themselves that question. Physiology plays a significant role in helping scientists unlock the mysteries of cognition. Possibly with studying the functions and process of the brain, we will be able to understand mental activities such as thinking. Until recently we only studied learning or thinking by observable behaviors, now we have the ability by using new technology, such as MRI's, PET scans etc, to actually "see" the brain work.

The Human Brain Pictures

Left Side
Right Side
Anterior
Inferior
Superior

PARTS OF THE BRAIN
- Frontal Lobe: Picture
  - Location:
    - The frontal lobe is the most anterior section. It is located right under the forehead.
  - Functions:
    - It determines how we know what we are doing in our environment (Consciousness).
    - It determines how we initiate activity and response to our environment.
    - Judgments we make about what occurs in our daily activities.
    - Controls our emotional response.
    - Controls our expressive language.
    - Assigns meaning to the words we choose.
    - Involves word associations.
    - Memory for habits and motor activities
- Parietal Lobe:
  - Location:
    - The parietal lobe is located near the back and top of the head.
  - Functions:
    - The parietal lobe contains the location for visual attention.
    - The parietal lobe contains the location for touch perception.
    - Goal directed voluntary movements.
    - Manipulation of objects.
    - Integration of different senses that allows for understanding a single concept.
- Occipital Lobe:
  - Location:
    - The occipital lobe is the most posterior. It is located at the back of the head.
  - Functions:
    - Vision
- Temporal Lobe:
  - Location:
    - The temporal lobe is located at the side of the head and above the ears.
  - Functions:
    - The temporal lobe is responsible for the hearing abilities.
    - Memory acquisition
    - Some visual perceptions
    - Categorization of subjects
- Brain Stem: The brain stem is made up of the medulla, the midbrain, and the pons. Picture
  - Medulla:
    - Location:
      - The medulla is the continuation of the spinal cord. It contains all the ascending and descending fiber tracts interconnecting the brain and the spinal cord. A majority of the cranial nerves enter and leave the brain from the medulla
    - Function:
      - Several vital autonomic nuclei concerned with respiration, heart action, and gastrointestinal function are in the medulla
      - Controls our breathing blood pressure and heart rhythms.
  - Pons:
    - Location:
      - The pons is the upward continuation of the brain stem. It contains ascending and descending fiber tracts and many additional nuclei.
    - Function:
      - The pons plays a major role in feeding behavior and in facial expressions. It also helps in controlling our breathing, blood pressure, and heart rhythms.
  - Midbrain:
    - Location:
      - The midbrain is the most anterior continuation of the brain stem that still maintains the basic tubular structure of the spinal cord.
    - Function:
      - The top portion of the midbrain contains nuclei important for the visual and auditory systems.
      - The bottom portion of the midbrain contains nuclei for the cranial nerves that control eye movement and the lower portions of the brain.
      - A large nucleus called the red nucleus is found here, as is a collection of dark, heavily pigmented cells, the substania nigra.
      - These structures are involved in movement.
- Cerebellum:
  - Location:
    - The cerebellum overlies the pons.
  - Function:
    - The cerebellum sends motor fibers to the thalamus, brain stem, and several other structures.
    - The cerebellum is primarily concerned with the regulation of motor coordination.
    - Removal of the cerebellum produces a characteristic set of symptoms of jerky, uncoordinated movement.
    - The cerebellum appears to play an important role in learning.
    - The cerebellum fine tunes our motor activity or movement.
- Thalamus:
  - Location:
    - The thalamus is located towards the anterior and dorsal side of the midbrain.
  - Function:
    - The thalamus is the final relay station for the major sensory systems that project to the cerebral cortex: the visual, auditory, and somatic sensory systems.
    - It plays a role in pain sensation, attention, and alertness.
- Hypothalamus
  - Location:
    - The hypothalamus is the lower portion of the cerebrum at the junction of the midbrain and the thalamus.
  - Function:
    - The hypothalamus interconnects regions of the brain.
    - It secretes hormones that control the pituitary glands which are responsible for physical growth, fight or flight reactions, sexual responses and many other physical expressions of mental states.
    - The hypothalamus is sometimes called the "master control system."
- Hippocampus:
  - Location:
    - The hippocampus is found between the corpus callosum and the temporal lobe.
  - Function:
    - The hippocampus provides the structure of the limbic system.
    - It also is involved in the learning and memorization processes.
- Basal Ganglia:
  - Location:
    - The basal ganglia is surrounds the thalamus, is enclosed by the cerebral cortex and cerebral white matter.
  - Function:
    - The basal ganglia forms the major part of the extrapyramidal motor system.
- Cerebral Cortex: Picture
  - Location:
    - The cerebral cortex is the brain's outer covering of cells.
  - Function:
    - The cerebral cortex is responsible for visual, auditory and skin -to-brain information. It is also responsible for the control of movements.
Summary
By now you should see that like much in cognitive science, physiology serves as a source for several reasons. Physiology serves as a model for real systems (animals) in real environments (the world). Physiology also serves as the basis for design principles for the human creation of analogous machines. Such work is primitive still, at least when compared to animals. In the future, not only will simple physiology be a model for cognitive science, but complex neurophysiology will too. Already, such efforts have begun. Minsky and Papert's old experiments with perceptrons are on example. Another is Braitenberg's conjectures about Vehicles. The new emphasis on neural net computing is still another example. Such efforts will likely continue in the future.

Sources for Cognitive Science

University of Helsinki--basic, medium, links
- This site springs off of Minsky and Papert's old experiments in perceptrons.http://www.helsinki.fi/hum/kognitiotiede/
National Science Foundation--basic, short, links
- This site contains several articles of varying views of cognitive science.http://red.www.nsf.gov/LIS/Example.htm
Short Summaries of Research in Cognitive Science--text, advanced, short, links
- Austian Society for cognitive science has compiled short summaries of cognitive science research. http://www.univie.ac.at/cognition/people/research.html#Riegler

General Resources in Biological Bases of Behavior

Neuroscience for Kids--tutorial, basic, medium, links, graphics, search

Site with a wealth of basic information on several aspects of the nervous system and the brain. Categories include: explore the nervous system, experiments and activities, on-line books and articles, and other related links. http://weber.u.washington.edu/~chudler/neurok.html

The Brain and Interactive Guide and Tour--tutorial, basic, short, links, graphics, Java

The basic function of neurons, the brain, and how the brain compares to a computer are presented. Some pages require Java. http://fovea.retina.net/~gecko/brain/

Neuroscience Atlas Images--graphic, basic, medium, links, graphics

A collection of images for neuroscience, categories are: forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain, ventricular system, blood supply, spinal cord, and eye. http://anatomy.uams.edu/HTMLpages/anatomyhtml/neuro_atlas.html

Anatomical Charts--graphic, basic, short, links, graphics

A commercial site exhibiting a wide variety of anatomical charts, including the nervous system, sense organs, and much more. http://www.anatomical.com/charts/charts.html

McConnell Brain Imaging Centre--index, adv., short, links, graphics

Home page of neuroimaging center, page has links to animations and pictures use for brain surgery and other research uses. http://www.bic.mni.mcgill.ca/bic_welcome.html

Neuroanatomy--index, interm., medium, links, graphics

A collection of 16 pages on general aspects of the human nervous system, topics include: introduction to the human nervous system, dissection of the brain, limbic structures, diseases of the central nervous system, and others. http://nan.drexel.edu/nan/neuroanatomy/lectures/lectures.html

The Nervous Systems

The Neurons and the Nervous System--tutorial, interm., medium, links, graphics

Another tutorial on the nervous system, sections included are: the basic neuron, electrical activity in neurons, chemical activity in neuron, the nervous system, and others. http://eleceng.ukc.ac.uk/~sd5/research/nn_index.html

Researching the Brain

The External Architecture of the Brain--tutorial, basic, links, graphics

Simply executed tutorial of external anatomy of brain, provides links to: cerebral hemispheres, views of cerebral cortex, cortex and its layers, division of the cortex into lobes, and specialized areas of the cerebral cortex. http://www.epub.org.br/cm/n01/arquitet/architecture_i.htm

Brain Model Tutorial--tutorial, basic, medium, links, graphics

Introductory level tutorial on basic brain anatomy. Provides tutorials on five separate views of the human brain. http://pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/~Brainmd1/brain.html

Views of Brain--graphic, basic, short, links, graphics

Page has five color photos of human brain. The views are: left, right, anterior, superior, and inferior. http://rpiwww.mdacc.tmc.edu:80/se/anatomy/brain/

The Whole Brain Atlas--index, interm., medium, links, graphics, search, Java (opt.)

A graphically rich, comprehensive site on the brain, includes sections on: normal brain, cerebrovascular disease, neoplastic disease, degenerative disease, and inflammatory or infectious disease. http://www.med.harvard.edu/AANLIB/home.html

Neuropsychology Central--index, interm., short, links, graphics, search, Java, audio

Site lists neuropsychology links in: assessment, cognitive, development, forensic, geriatric, neuroimaging, treatment, and other related areas. http://www.premier.net/~cogito/neuropsy.html

Introduction to MRI--tutorial, interm., short, links, graphics, search

Covers the following topics: basics of MRI , instrumentation, image Characteristics, artifacts, pulse sequences, safety, contrast agents, MR Angiography, MR Spectroscopy , special topics, glossary, references. http://128.227.164.224/mritutor/index.html

Anatomical Sciences Index--tutorial, adv., short, links, graphics, Java

Java-enabled images allow viewer to move through tutorials on neurophysiology, embryology, gross anatomy, and microbiology. http://w3.uokhsc.edu/anatomical_sciences/

Neuroanatomy and Neuropathology on the Internet--index, interm., medium, links, graphics

This page has a large number of links to other resources in neuroanatomy and neuropathology. The categories are: anatomy, histology, pathology, history, documents, quizzes, books, journals, software, societies, links, about, and new. http://www.dote.hu/~hegedus/

Neurosciences on the Internet--index, adv., long, links, graphics, search

A searchable site in neuroscience, it covers a wide variety of specialized topics. http://www.neuroguide.com/

Human Brain Project--index, adv., short, links

A good source for finding institutions doing research in the brain as part of the project. Those institutions participating and their specializations are listed in a link. http://www-hbp.scripps.edu/Home.html

Lateral Connections in the Cortex: Structure and Function--book, adv., short, links

On-line book about lateral connections in the cortex of the brain, the page consists of a collection of eleven chapters on different views on lateral connectivity. http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/nn/web-pubs/htmlbook96/

Neuroscience Web Search--search, interm., short, links, search

This neuroscience-specific search page allows searches for topics in the biology of the brain and related areas. Be sure to read the search hints for this page. http://www.acsiom.org/nsr/neuro.html

Neuroanatomy and Physiology--tutorial, interm., long, links, graphics

Designed for parents of children with neurological and neurosurgical illness, it contains a lot of basic information combined with color figures. http://www.bethisraelny.org/inn/anatomy/anatomy.html

BrainTainment Center--index, basic, medium, links, graphics

This commercial site sells consumer tests of brain function, but it also provides information on brain function.Users may take a simple IQ test on-line. http://www.brain.com/

Mapping the Motor Cortex--tutorial, basic, short, links, graphics

Two pages that describe the early history of the discovery of brain localization, the first page describes the work of Hitzig and the second that of Penfield. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/tryit/brain/cortexhistory.html

Cortex Map--tutorial, basic, short, links, graphics

Discusses and describes the work and location of the motor homunculus. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/tryit/brain/mapcortex.html

The Brain: A Work in Progress--article, basic, short, links, graphics

From the Los Angeles Times, a set of related articles about the brain. Article titles are: brain discovery, inner worlds, conscious brain, mental frontier, and new born. http://www.latimes.com/HOME/NEWS/SCIENCE/REPORTS/THEBRAIN/

Neuroscience Web Search--index, basic, long, links, graphics, search engines

This page contains over five hundred links to neuroscience web sites http://www.acsiom.org/nsr/linkedtous.html.

Left and Right Brains

Conversations with Neil's Brain--book, interm., short, links, graphics

In this on-line version, a neurophysiologist and a neurosurgeon describe brain surgery on an epileptic in detail and at length. Emphasis is paid to the laterality aspects of the case. http://www.WilliamCalvin.com/bk7/bk7.htm

Left or Right Brain?--text, basic, medium

A paper-and-pencil test of laterality that can be printed. The key is provided as are comments about the results. http://www-leland.stanford.edu/~cychen/brain.html

The Split-Brain Student--text, basic, medium

A way that users can simulate the effects of the split brain operation, requires two participants. http://www.bhs.mq.edu.au/~tbates/321/Split_brain/Split-Brain_exercise.html

Lorin's Left Handedness Site--index, basic, short, links, graphics

Site answers questions about left handedness including: prevalence, genetics, longevity, myths, and more. http://watarts.uwaterloo.ca/~ljelias/left.htm

Evolution and Systematics

The Tree of Life--index, interm., medium, links, graphics

A very long and comprehensive (and still under construction) set of pages that illustrate the relationships of phylogeny. http://phylogeny.arizona.edu/tree/phylogeny.html

Talk.Origins Archive--index, interm., short, links, graphics

The home page of the Usenet group talk.origins which is devoted to exploring the creation--evolution controversy. Page includes a FAQ and an archive. http://www.talkorigins.org/

Center for Evolutionary Psychology--index, interm., short, links

Home page of the Center for Evolutionary Psychology at UCSB, academic home of Leda Cosmides and John Tooby, two of the founders of evolutionary psychology (EP). Page contains a primer on evolutionary psychology, a reading list, links to places to study EP, and others. http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/

Enter Evolution--index, interm., long, links, graphics

Covers Darwin and the theory of evolution, includes links to: topics (3), scientists (25), and UC-Berkeley Museum of Paleontology. http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/evolution.html

Charles Darwin--book, adv., short, links

Links to full text versions of Darwin's Origin of the Species and the Voyage of the Beagle. http://www.literature.org/Works/Charles-Darwin/

The World of Richard Dawkins--index, adv., long, index, graphics

The "unofficial" home page of Richard Dawkins, author of The Selfish Gene, The Blind Watchmaker and other books about evolution and information. Contains numerous links to related information on Dawkins. http://www.spacelab.net/~catalj/

Just for Fun

Animal Reasoning--interactive, basic, medium, links, graphics

Page provides short quiz on the behavior of animals in Kenya. http://www.jambokenya.com/jambo/feature/games/anmquiz1.htm

Grandad's Animal Alphabet Book--interactive, basic, short, links, graphics

An on-line book designed for K-6 students, but it covers basic ecological topics well, includes several quizzes. http://www.mrtc.org/~twright/animals/english/grandad.htm

Brain Test--interactive, basic, short, links, graphics, Shockwave

A simple, but slickly implemented, test of laterality. Use for illustration only, not scientifically valid. http://www.wholebrain.com/food-braintest.html

Probe the Brain--interactive, basic, short, links, graphics, Shockwave

Users may explore the motor homunculus of the brain interactively, clicking on one of 17 areas of the brain will cause the appropriate motor response in the body. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/tryit/brain/

Map of Andy's Brain--index, basic, short, links, graphics

A tongue-in-cheek look at the concept of brain localization, this page shows areas like: the id, the diner, the erogenous zone, and other humorous examples. http://www.wunderland.com/WTS/Andy/BrainNodes/ABrainMap.html

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